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The term LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. Modern electronics relies heavily upon LED light bulbs. For instance, LEDs transmit information from remote controls, are used in traffic lights, digital LED clocks, flashlights, and to form images on jumbo television screens.

LED light bulbs are miniature bulbs that do not use filaments to produce light. Therefore, the life of an LED is much longer than that of a regular incandescent bulb, because there is no filament to burn out. Incandescent bulbs also tend to be much larger in size due to the filament, which must be housed in a vacuum inside the bulb. LED light bulbs last as long as a standard transistor used in modern electronics, and are lit purely by the movement of electrons.

The simplicity and long life of the LED make its use very desirable for various technological applications. LED light bulbs are housed in a durable plastic rather than glass and perhaps most importantly, are much more efficient. In traditional incandescent bulbs heat is generated when activating the filament to produce light. This causes energy to be wasted on the production of heat rather than the production of light. In order to produce the same amount of light as an LED, an incandescent bulb would have to work even harder. LED light bulbs save electricity and lower electric bills.

Despite this positive scenario, incandescent bulbs are tailored to home lighting and will continue to be used until affordable, household LED light bulbs are available. At present, LED light bulbs are expensive and recommended for low-light applications such as porch lights or subdued corner-lighting. (An exception are chandelier LED light bulbs, which can produce a brighter glow because there are so many lights working together.) As semiconductor prices have decreased steadily over the past twelve years, the time for affordable, brighter LED bulbs is approaching. Prices will be offset in the long run by savings in electricity and the lifetime of the bulbs, which is reportedly 30,000-50,000 hours on average.

Until LED light bulbs become more prevalent in the house, they will continue to light watches, traffic signals, and jumbo television screens at the local ballpark.

The origin of text messaging is somewhere back in the late-1980s and early-1990s. The first commercial text messaging took place in 1991, sent from a computer to a handset. Text messaging didn’t catch on for some time after these initial texts, and by the mid-1990s it was scarcely being used throughout Europe. By 2000, text messaging was being used with some intermittent frequency in Europe and Asia, although it was still rarely used in the United States, and less than 20 billion text messages were sent worldwide.

By 2001, text messaging had caught on and begun to spread like wildfire, with the number of messages sent up to over 250 billion, a more than ten-fold increase. Young users especially seemed drawn to text messaging as a quick and easy way to stay in constant contact, and by 2003 more than half of all cell phone users were thought to be text messaging. It is now the most popular service used with cell phones, and it has become a fixture of modern life.

Text messaging is generally billed as an extra service by cell phone providers, either on a per-text basis, with an average of $0.10 US Dollars, or as part of a bundle package with a monthly fee, which brings the per-text cost down somewhat. Text messaging represents billions of dollars worth of extra profit for cell phone companies, and as they use very little bandwidth relative to phone conversations, the profit margins are large.

Text messaging is not only used for person-to-person communication, with a number of groups jumping on to the craze in recent years. Political campaigns, for example, have used text messaging as a way to keep their supporters up to speed on events as they happen. Protesters and organizers have used text messaging as a way to stay connected during actions, mobilizing large groups of people in real time. Various businesses allow users to sign up for updates via text messaging, or to receive bills via text messaging. Text messaging can be used to stay up to speed on stock prices, sports scores, and any number of other small bits of data that change rapidly.

Since most phones have small keys, and in the case of numerical keypads buttons may need to be pressed multiple times to find the correct letter, a whole slang of shorthand and acronyms has developed around text messaging. Replacing words with numbers, contracting words to single letters, and even substituting seemingly-arbitrary strings of numbers for entire sentences all make up the world of texting acronyms. Examples include phrases such as, “c u l8r,” to mean See you later, “r u ok?” to mean Are you okay, and “143,” to mean I love you, where each number represents the number of letters in the word it substitutes.

An iPhone™ app, or application, is what Apple® calls third-party software programs developed specifically for the iPhone™ and the iPod Touch®. The applications available can be downloaded directly by the cell phone, or downloaded to a computer and transferred to the phone. Apple® has an iPhone™ app store for those who want to add new features to their phone. The cost varies, but is generally less than $2 US Dollars (USD) per app.

Those who are interested in any iPhone™ app should make sure they are using an iPhone™. The apps do not work with other types of smartphone hardware. This is different than the situation with iTunes® music files, which can run across several operating systems. Other types of phones will likely have their own specific apps, which are downloaded from a different online store. Many of these applications may be similar to those available on the iPhone™, but will not be exactly the same. Features and the interactivity may be slightly different.

An iPhone™ app may provide a number of different functions, depending on the program. Some are meant to show news, sports or weather information. Others are used to provide maps and perhaps even GPS services. The apps can be purely for entertainment, including games, or serve a more practical function. Thus, the marketing model for Apple® includes both the business user and the casual user. This not only includes the list of potential customers, but also gives those customers a broad array of choices.

There are more than two dozen iPhone™ app categories listed in the store where the applications can be downloaded. Some allow the iPhone™ to be turned into a musical instrument. Others will stream live information, or nearly live information, right onto the phone’s screen. This is helpful for those who want up-to-the-minute information on stock prices or sports scores. For those who want to be be a little more playful with the phone, there are numerous games to choose from, many with graphics much better than the standard games that come preloaded on many other phones.

Downloading an iPhone™ app requires installing iTunes® onto a computer, or using the phone or iPod® itself. Many may already have the iTunes® application downloaded as it is a popular portal through which to download music legally. The iPhone™ apps are not available directly off the Internet through a traditional Web site. Therefore, those who wish to add new software to their phone will need to get used to the iTunes® interface.

The 4G network is the fourth generation of wireless communication. While still in development, the foundations for the replacement of the present network is currently being researched and constructed by the cellular phone industry and other technology developers. The overall goal for the network is to provide a comprehensive and secure Internet Protocol solution with much faster data speeds than previous generations.

The first wireless network, known as 1G, was founded during the 1980s. 2G was introduced in the early 1990s as a way of allowing more transmissions to occur per communication channel. The foundations of 3G were established in the late 1990s and have been implemented throughout the majority of the world as of the early 21st century. While the 3G network was the first to allow for multimedia applications, 4G promises to take this basic technology and amplify its usage.

The specifics of the 4G network are geared towards a higher quality of service. Better reception and less dropped data and information exchanges are a priority. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), the organization that oversees the standards of the present wireless networks, has stated that it requires substantial improvements to multimedia messaging services, including video services, in order to approve a new generation. It wants a data speed transfer rate of at least 100 megabits per second while a user is physically moving at high speeds and a one gigabit per second data rate in a fixed position. The ITU also requires interactive roaming between networks.

A variety of working groups have been established to help develop the 4G network. Proposals from these organizations include implementation of WiMax, a faster version of wireless data transfer than WiFi networks. The groups also plan to utilize packet-based information exchange based on standard IP technology. This promises to be the fastest mobile communication method without cables ever devised.

In order to make the 4G system work, the concept of smart antennas must be developed and implemented. With the establishment of the 2G and 3G networks, a number of different methods of data transmission were created. Many of these technologies can be rolled into the 4G network, however, the working groups and ITU prefer a standardized antenna system that can communicate across company lines.

One of the proposed technologies to make this happen is known as spacial multiplexing. Spacial multiplexing uses a series of antennas linked into a single transmitter and receiver. These antennas are capable of functioning simultaneously, speeding up the space-time data exchange rates.

Overall implementation of the 3G network around the world took nearly a decade. The ITU plans to have the 4G network rolled out to the global market in a much more effective and timely manner. With the speeds and video technology, the possibilities for wireless communication will revolutionize the global communications network. However, concerns over stability and security are also prime factors in the development.

Symbian OS is an open source operating system for mobile phones primarily used on Nokia advanced or data enabled smart phones. Symbian OS runs exclusively on ARM processors and has evolved from Psion’s EPOC which was developed as a rudimentary operating system for early electronic organizers. The Psion EPOC OS was refered to EPOC16 beginning in the late 1990’s to help distinguish it from the newer 32bit Operating system EPOC32, which eventually became Symbian OS. Psion software created a joint venture with several mobile hardware manufacturers, Ericsson®, Motorola®, and Nokia® called Symbian and eventually took on the name Symbian Software, renaming EPOC32 Symbian OS.

The key advantage of EPOC32 over its 16bit predecessor is the ability to multi-task, perform multiple functions at once. In newer devices, this might mean being able to surf the web using the phone and not lose your content when answering an incoming call.

Many third party manufacturers were able to license the 32bit EPOC OS for their organizers and other mobile data devices. Since the late 1990’s,Symbian OS has become one of the most popular mobile device operating systems available.

Several device manufacturers from Nokia® to Sony/Ericsson® have committed to the new and open project that Symbian has announced for its mobile phone operating system, Symbian OS. Wireless carriers such as AT&T® and T-Mobile® have also pledged support for the project.

Symbian OS has also adapted to include soft features such as global positioning software (GPS) which will become as common as a camera in the very near future. Service providers and other companies could then publish location based services that interact with the GPS found in a mobile phone, appearing on the display once the user is near an application.

In recent years, Microsoft® and Palm® have been the most discussed providers of operating system software for mobile phones, but Symbian has been powering phones for quite some time. The company announced in 2008 that the operating system would become open source very soon, allowing other vendors and even users themselves to add to the already widely established Symbian OS. The support for the much established mobile platform is far and wide, though much of the press lately has centered around Apple’s iPhone® and other offerings including the rumored Google Android OS for mobile devices.

It will be interesting to see what hardware is developed for use with Symbian OS in the future to compete with phones like the iPhone® and the latest mobile devices from Palm® and Microsoft®.

The Game Boy is a handheld video game console that is credited as the longest running video game system of all time. Developed by Gunpei Yokoi of Nintendo Japan, the Game Boy was released in the U.S. in 1991. Upon its release, it was bundled with the game “Tetris”? and from the moment it hit shelves, it’s been a best seller. The Game Boy has evolved over the years both in technology and design, but continues to be the number one selling handheld video game system.

The very first Game Boy contained a mere 8-bit 4.19 MHz CPU with a 4-color display screen in grayscale and a resolution of 160×144 pixels. When the system proved an instant success, Nintendo wasted no time revamping the Game Boy, and the ten year span between the original release and the release of the Game Boy Advance delivered the Game Boy Pocket and the Game Boy Color. In 2001, the Game Boy had morphed into the Game Boy Advance, with a 32-bit 16.78MHz CPU, a color display and 240×160 pixels.

The Game Boy remained a top seller during this ten year run and was ready to make a leap into new areas. The Game Boy Advance received some design criticism, especially regarding the back lighting, and Nintendo addressed this common complaint with the release of the Game Boy Advance SP in 2003. The Game Boy Advance has been redesigned twice with the SP and the 2005 release of the Game Boy Micro. The flip screen of the Game Boy Advance SP was a big hit and the SP outsold even the Micro.

Even as the Game Boy evolved, Nintendo successfully addressed consumer needs by allowing each and every system to support previous game titles. Super Mario Land and Pokemon Red and Blue were the Game Boy’s best selling game titles with sales of 14 million and 11 million respectively. Nintendo also manufactures the Nintendo DS, another handheld game system that supports previous Game Boy titles as well as DS titles. The Nintendo DS is a dual screen game system with touch button and stylus controls. Amongst its many abilities, the Nintendo DS can display 3-D graphics. Metroid Prime DS, Animal Crossing DS, and Nintendogs were among the first successful titles released exclusively for the Nintendo DS.

Psychologists and psychiatrists both specialize in human behavior and mental conditions. The training for the two professions is different, however, and the two also work in slightly different fields. Both psychiatrists and psychologists play an important role in understanding how humans behave and interact with each other.

The primary difference between the two has to do with training. A psychiatrist is a medical doctor, meaning that he or she has gone to both undergraduate and medical school, and has followed with a professional residency in psychiatry. During the residency, the psychiatrist may choose a particular aspect to focus on, such as treating schizophrenia or depression. After qualifying as a doctor, a psychiatrist is able to prescribe medications and administer therapy such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), also known as shock therapy. A psychiatrist usually works with individual patients who need help.

A psychologist usually earns a doctoral degree, although a small number of careers are available in this field that only require a master’s, such as an industrial-organizational psychologist. A psychologist who wants to treat patients will need an advanced degree and additional training so that he or she can become a clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can offer various types of therapy, depending on the training he or she has received.

There are, however, many different types of psychologist. Research psychologists work in laboratories and on field experiments to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior. Forensic psychologists lend their skills to the legal profession. Child psychologists and school counselors focus on working with children and young adults.

For patients, sometimes the primary difference between the two is a that a psychiatrist is able to prescribe psychotropic drugs. A psychiatrist rarely relies on drugs alone for therapy and treatment, but drugs can sometimes be an important component of treatment for troubled patients. Often, a psychiatrist also trains to offer a particular school of therapy to his or her patients, and may bring things like hypnotherapy, Jungian theory, and Gestalt therapy to the table.

A therapist or licensed clinical social worker may be a psychologist, but the terms are not interchangeable. The terms “therapist” or “counselor” are broad terms that may cover professionals with a variety of educational backgrounds. Although therapists cannot prescribe like a psychiatrist can, they usually have specialized training in treating patients and dealing with various situations. They also tend to be less expensive to see than psychiatrists, although not all insurance companies will cover visits to a therapist.

As with any medical professional, some research should be done before picking a psychiatrist or psychologist. Even if your doctor refers you to a specific practitioner, your therapy will not be productive if you do not feel comfortable with your provider. Take several sessions before making up your mind, but be aware of how you interact with the psychiatrist or psychologist, and decide whether or not you think you will work well together. Do not be afraid to ask for recommendations to other practitioners who can meet your specific needs; most mental health professionals want to see patients get better, regardless of who is treating them.

Although the terms “jail” and “prison” are sometimes used interchangeably, most members of law enforcement distinguish between the two. Primarily, the difference is that a jail is used by local jurisdictions such as counties and cities to confine people for short periods of time. A prison, or penitentiary, is administered by the state, and is used to house convicted criminals for periods of much longer duration. Both are part of a larger penal system which includes other aspects of criminal justice such as courts, law enforcement, and crime labs.

Because a jail is designed for short time periods only, it tends to have less amenities than a prison. Individuals who are being housed in a jail have access to bathrooms and are provided with food and water, and in a low security jail, they may be able to socialize in common areas during certain periods of the day. Most jails are designed to hold a very small number of criminals, and have relatively lax security when compared to prisons, although in areas prone to violence, a jail may be run along very strict lines. A jail houses people who have been convicted to serve a short sentence, individuals awaiting trial, people who have not yet paid bail, and detainees who have just been picked up on suspicion of committing a crime. The criminals are processed through a booking procedure, and the criminal justice system decides what to do with them after that.

In a prison, the amenities are much more extensive, as some prisoners may be serving their lives behind bars. Prisons have exercise areas, common areas for eating and socializing in lower security areas, church facilities, and an educational facility which includes classrooms, libraries, and labs to work and study in. In lower security prisons such as those used to imprison people convicted of white collar crimes, the prison could sometimes be mistaken for a hotel. In most cases, prison inmates are expected to share cells with other inmates, and because of the long duration of most prison sentences, a complex social and political structure arises among the prisoners.

A prison is capable of handling far more prisoners than a jail is, and the prisoners are typically segregated on the basis of the types of crimes that they have been convicted of, as a safety precaution. In addition, in countries which still have capital punishment, a prison maintains facilities to carry out capital sentences, along with housing for criminals sentenced to this type of punishment. In general, the prison facility as a whole is very tightly secured, even if not all the criminals inside are violent, to prevent escapes or potential violence between wings of the prison. Prison staff are specially trained to work in a prison environment, and a board of governors appointed by the state oversees prison management.